how much boric acid is toxic to humans

The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". Just clear tips and lifehacks for every day. Formulation and Characterization of a New Injectable Bone Substitute Composed PVA/Borax/CaCO. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. In contrast, Boric acid has a 30% mortality rate within 24 hours and a mortality rate of 100% after 15 days. Mix sugar with boric acid. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. Boric acid is a hard crystalline solid with very low solubility in water. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. An assessment of boric acid and borax using the IEHR Evaluative Process for Assessing Human Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity of Agents. People may notice that the muscles in their hands, arms, legs or feet involuntarily twitch, contract or shake, MedlinePlus reports. government site. Make sure you handle it with care when applying. The person may receive: Note: Activated charcoal does not effectively treat (adsorb) boric acid. Death from complications may occur as long as several months later. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Boric acid is the major component of industry and its antioxidant role has recently been reported. 2006 Aug;(74):1-62, A1-C2. However, 3-5 grams of boric is enough to kill the young ones while 5-10 g is toxic to adult rats and mice depending on their size or habitat. Toxic Rep Ser. Boron Oxide Nanoparticles Exhibit Minor, Species-Specific Acute Toxicity to North-Temperate and Amazonian Freshwater Fishes. DO NOT use it to treat or manage an actual poison exposure. The .gov means its official. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. According to the David Suzuki Foundation, borax poses significant health risks. Score: 5/5 (66 votes) . and transmitted securely. What characteristics allow plants to survive in the desert? HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Humans can only handle so much iron before it becomes harmful. Boric acid poisoning may be acute or chronic. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Boric acid may cause infertility and reduce testicular size in men, nausea, vomiting and other flu-like symptoms. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Poisoning from this chemical can be acute or chronic. Editorial team. They will give you further instructions. More severe muscle spasms, such as seizures or convulsions, may also occur and may cause affected people to lose consciousness. Locatelli C, Minoia C, Tonini M, Manzo L. G Ital Med Lav. BORIC acid and sodium borate are sufficiently poisonous to cause severe symptoms and death when used in amounts commonly considered to be perfectly harmless. Boric acid poisoning may be acute or chronic. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. In vivo percutaneous absorption of boric acid, borax, and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate in humans compared to in vitro absorption in human skin from infinite and finite doses. Concerning genotoxicity studies, the overall picture indicates that boron-containing compounds are not genotoxic. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Boric acid is a dangerous poison. This is an emergency. Before Boric acid is a caustic chemical. It is also no longer commonly used in medical preparations. Ninety-nine per cent boric acid powder is now being used as a household pesticide. Is Dish Soap/Detergent Safe? Medrano-David D, Lopera AM, Londoo ME, Araque-Marn P. J Funct Biomater. How much is the entrance fee to the Metropolitan Museum of Art? Take the container with you to the hospital, if possible. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. The present study assessed, for the first time, the effectiveness of boric acid following exposure to Aflatoxin B 1 on human whole blood cultures. Borax is a mineral that is taken straight from the ground (a form of the element Boron) and used in cleaning products. It's also known as hydrogen borate, boracic acid, orthoboric acid and acidum boricum. Using a pump or duster will also allow you to control how much boric acid you apply on surfaces. 58: (1983) 737 . eCollection 2021. Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine Boric acid is a chemical compound that has been used for many years to rid homes of roaches and other pests. FOIA From grandma to Galen: boric acid poisoning. Moving on to more technical descriptions, boric acid has the chemical formula of BH3O3. Poisoning from this chemical can be acute or chronic. infertility . Boric acid poisoning can lead to serious symptoms and can be fatal. how much boric acid is toxic to humans. You are going to cough and sneeze. Chronic poisoning occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to boric acid. Epub 2010 Dec 27. Boric acid is an ingredient in some vaginal suppositories used for yeast infections, although this is NOT a standard treatment. Boric Acid Toxicity In Humans And Animals In terms of ingesting enough Boric acid to cause death in an adult, Boric acid is about as dangerous as table salt. Symptoms of boric acid or borax poisoning usually first appear within two hours. . Although boric acid is non-toxic to humans, it's highly toxic to roaches. Less than 5 grams can kill a pet or child, according to Dr. Angela Damant, D.V.M. J Forensic Sci. While the National Library of Medicine (NLM) classifies borax as being noncarcinogenic, it does pose some risks, including: skin, eye, and respiratory irritation. New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai, The Blavatnik Family Chelsea Medical Center, Heart - Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery, Committee to Address Anti-Asian Bias and Racism (CAABR), Preparing for Surgery and Major Procedures, The name of the product (ingredients and strength, if known), Airway support, including oxygen, breathing tube through the mouth (intubation), and breathing machine (ventilator), Camera down the throat (endoscopy) to see burns in the esophagus and stomach, ECG (electrocardiogram, or heart tracing), Surgical removal of burned skin (debridement), Transfer to a hospital that specializes in burn care, Washing of the skin (irrigation), possibly every few hours for several days. In its natural form, boric acid is a colorless or white crystal that can be finely ground into a powder and dissolved in water. Is ingesting a small amount of boric acid toxic? Physicians therefore should be aware of the potential for boric acid toxicity. Pour this mixture into a sprayer or squeezable bottle and spray it on areas where you have seen the roaches. Other symptoms may include: If the chemical is on the skin, remove it by washing the area thoroughly. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The .gov means its official. Boric acid should never be applied directly to your pet. Center. PMC Holes (perforations) in the esophagus and stomach may result in serious infections in both the chest and abdominal cavities, which may result in death. As a non-toxic agent to humans, boric acid (borax) is a very safe and effective ingredient for repelling carpet beetles. Physicians therefore should be aware of the potential for boric acid toxicity. Death If a. Materials (Basel). Other symptoms may include: Blisters. The acute toxicity of borate is considered to be about the same as that of salt. Boric acid works by interfering with an insect's ability to absorb water through its exoskeleton. Quantities below 5 grams cannot harm them. With too much iron, excess free radicals are created that can damage cells and organs. Fatalities from boric acid also have occurred after oral ingestion, and the endpoints in animals are weight loss and reproductive toxicity. eCollection 2015. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Chromosomal aberrations; Comet assay; Dermal; Inhalation; Micronuclei; Micronucleus; Mutation; Oral. Boric acid can be toxic to insects and other pests, but it's not harmful to humans or animals. ( source) Get Rid Of Ants & Their Nest, Fast! Boric acid is a dangerous poison. NTP Toxicity Study Report on the atmospheric characterization, particle size, chemical composition, and workplace exposure assessment of cellulose insulation (CELLULOSEINS). In trace amounts, borate is an essential micronutrient for plants and is considered nutritionally important for humans. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. It is not toxic to the human body. 1997 Jan-Feb;11(1):123-60. doi: 10.1016/s0890-6238(96)00204-3. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Would you like email updates of new search results? Boric Acid has a LD50 value of 2,660 mg/kg. You can make boric acid yourself or buy it from local stores and even Amazon.com. Boric acid is readily absorbed by a number of different routes and is particularly insidious in that symptoms may be minimal until a lethal or near lethal dose has been absorbed. The average dose causing symptoms was 3.2 grams, but it was also highly variable with individual values ranging from 0.1 to 55.5 g. Minimum oral lethal doses of boric acid in humans have been estimated from accidental poisonings to be in the range of 5-20 g for adults, 3-6 g for children and <5 g for infants. While boric acid is generally considered safe for humans, there is some concern that it may affect ovulation in women. Boric acid is toxic to plants so should not be used around them. ccmg.ucanr.edu December 18, 2010: Boric Acid for Ant Problems, page 2 Collapse. Boric acid is not safe for humans. Inhalation toxicity data are sparse, but one animal study showed reduced foetal weight after inhalation of cellulose that had a boric acid content of 20%. Toxicol Sci. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. government site. 2021 May 28;9:689933. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.689933. Iran J Pharm Res. Most commercially bought baits and traps will only use 5-10% boric acid in their formulas. In humans, ingestion of boric acid becomes lethal at doses of 2 to 3 grams in toddlers, 5 to 6 grams in adolescents and 15 to 20 grams in fully grown adults, according to People for Clean Beds. Borax can also be irritating to the skin. Ingredients: 2 Tbsp. 2015 Jul 30;14:890-9. doi: 10.17179/excli2015-404. In fact, he notes that one of boric acid's first uses when it was registered in 1948 was to eradicate fleas. The main symptoms of boric acid poisoning are blue-green vomit, diarrhea, and a bright red rash on the skin. The average dose causing symptoms was 3.2 grams, but it was also highly variable with individual values ranging from 0.1 to 55.5 g. Minimum oral lethal doses of boric acid in humans have been estimated from accidental poisonings to be in the range of 5-20 g for adults, 3-6 g for children and 5 g for infants. 8 juli, 2022. Boric acid vaginal suppositories: a brief review. you're skipping christmas isn't that against the law. Environ Health Perspect. Is boric acid for roaches safe for humans? Although low in toxicity, boric acid should be inhaled or ingested due to health concerns. If you buy powdered boric acid to spread out, it will likely be around 98% boric acid. Child. If a large amount is ingested, it can cause serious damage to the liver and kidneys, and even death. Posted by: is woolworths looking for employees . Answer: Boric acid is a solid. Commonly reported symptoms include nausea, vomiting (often with blue-green coloration), abdominal pain and diarrhea (which may contain blood or have a blue-green color). When properly used boric acid can be a safe pest control product but it should never be inhaled or ingested. Publication types Review Accessibility Effects. Physicians therefore should be aware of the potential for boric acid toxicity. 1998 Sep;45(1):42-51. doi: 10.1006/toxs.1998.2490. Boric Acid for Rats In this article: Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine They protect against dust, mist and fumes and are available from all hardware stores for about $10 for a pack of 3. 2021 Aug 11;12(3):46. doi: 10.3390/jfb12030046. . Although boric acid was widely used therapeutically in the past and resulted in significant toxicity, the past few years have seen a decline in its usage. Muscle Spasms Muscle spasms may develop as a symptom of boric acid poisoning 1 2. and transmitted securely. Bookshelf The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". There are some people who should avoid using boric acid suppositories. a gritty sensation in the vagina. Borax and boric acid are two different formulations of the same compound. Although boric acid was widely used therapeutically in the past and resulted in significant toxicity, the past few years have seen a decline in its usage. From boric acid : Borax is prepared from boric acid by boiling with soda ash. For skin exposure, treatment may include: The person may need to be admitted to a hospital for more treatment. SOUFA is conducting safety tests.It is not toxic to the human body. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! Skin exposure to boric acid has proven fatal in some cases, and the range of toxicity effects include abdominal as well as local effects on the skin. This is a free and confidential service. how much boric acid is toxic to humans. The site is secure. If it contacts tissues, it can cause injury. Despite that dose levels of boron associated with reproductive toxic effects in animals are by far not reachable for humans under normal handling and use conditions [112] [113] [114], boric acid . Hoyte C. Caustics. Horaires de travail Lun - Sam 08:00 - 18:00 Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. Toxicity and potential carcinogenicity studies of boric acid were investigated in mice to verify in a second rodent species that this was a noncarcinogenic chemical. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It is considered to be slightly more toxic than table salt to humans. FOIA Prolonged exposure to dust levels in excess of regulatory limits should always be avoided. Wester RC, Hui X, Hartway T, Maibach HI, Bell K, Schell MJ, Northington DJ, Strong P, Culver BD. 16th ed. It does NOT need to be an emergency. However, if you take an extremely large amount, you may get sick. PMC The estimated lethal dose for humans is 15 to 20 grams. Borax and boric acid are only toxic when ingested. What is causing the plague in Thebes and how can it be fixed? Eye Contact: Use eye wash fountain or fresh water to cleanse eye. Accidental boric acid poisoning following the ingestion of household pesticide. Roaches die shortly after ingesting boric acid. Boric Acid Disturbs Cell Wall Synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Accessibility Whether Borax is found within a cleaner or is the main ingredient in a pesticide, it is extremely unsafe for your dog. 1998;6(4):191-4. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-0997(1998)6:4<191::AID-IDOG10>3.0.CO;2-6. Epub 2022 May 20. This is one of the easiest and most effective recipes to get rid of roaches. Can Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) or Boron Compounds be an Ultimate Solution for COVID-19 Therapy? You make a mixture with equal parts of sugar and boric acid. For example, in the past, boric acid was used to disinfect and treat wounds. stop sign on back of hockey jersey . Surgery may be needed if the esophagus, stomach, or intestine has a hole (perforation) from the acid. Boric acid, also known as hydrogen borate (H 3 BO 3), is a weak acid derived from the mineral boron. However, it is poisonous for humans and pets to ingest in large quantities, meaning you should educate yourself and use it carefully when removing pests from your home. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. .And gradually, this feeding and sharing process will kill off the queen and her entire colony of ants, taking anywhere from a couple of days to a couple of weeks, depending on the size of the colony. People who have eaten boric acid have had nausea, vomiting, stomach aches, and diarrhea. Copyright 2022 SOUFA INC.Boric acid flameretardant& Termiticide, Boric acid as an alternative to phosphorus-based flame retardants, Obtained wood incombustibility certification in Taiwan. Table Salt has a LD50 value of 3000 mg/kg. Case report: the clinical toxicity of dimethylamine borane. . Abstract. Common side effects may include: watery vaginal discharge; redness, mild burning; or. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". MacCormack TJ, Gormley PT, Khuong BN, Adams OA, Braz-Mota S, Duarte RM, Vogels CM, Tremblay L, Val AL, Almeida-Val VMF, Westcott SA. If you snort it, it is going to irritate the lining of the respiratory tract. Toxicity Borax is quickly broken down by the body if ingested and inhaled. Poisoning from this chemical can be acute or chronic. It can cause numerous health issues including organ damage. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, Brenda Conaway, Editorial Director, and the A.D.A.M. For fertility and developmental toxicity, boric acid has been classified by the European Union as a "Category 1B" compound of the Globally . You can call for any reason, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Chronic poisoning occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to boric acid. Acute boric acid poisoning usually occurs when someone swallows powdered roach-killing products that contain the chemical. Acute poisoning occurs when individuals swallow powdered cockroach-killing products that contain boric acid. If it contacts tissues, it can cause injury. Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. Chronic poisoning occurs in those who are repeatedly exposed to boric acid. This is not a complete list of side effects and others may occur. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. Acute boric acid poisoning usually occurs when someone swallows powdered roach-killing products that contain the chemical. Environ Health Perspect. An official website of the United States government. 2022 Apr 29;15(9):3207. doi: 10.3390/ma15093207. Boric acid. Boric acid (H3BO3) is a white crystalline, oxygen-bearing acid of boron, which is a component of certain minerals and volcanic waters or hot springs. How long does boric acid suppositories stay in your system? Inhalation: No specific treatment is necessary since Boric Acid is not likely to be hazardous by inhalation. Use a stir bar and low heat to ensure that the boric acid dissolves fully. The powder form of boric acid can be very fine. Individuals repeatedly exposed to the dilute boric acid eventually developed boric acid poisoning. Boric acid is a chemical compound created with the element boron. Ants transfer food to each other, sharing your boric acid poison mixture. Some of the first signs of consuming boric acid are excessive salivation, thirst, fever, vomiting, retching, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Skin exposure to boric acid has proven fatal in some cases, and the range of toxicity effects include abdominal as well as local effects on the skin. A small study published in 2009 found that boric acid exposure may disrupt the normal development of the follicle, which could lead to problems with ovulation. Waltham, MA: Elsevier; 2016:1030-1031. Rust, The distribution of boric acid in human organs in six deaths due to boric acid poisoning J.A.M.A. Boric acid is toxic when ingested by mouth, though. Ingesting even a small amount can lead to vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration. 8600 Rockville Pike If it contacts tissues, it can cause injury. The biochemical characterizations of glutathione and some enzymes have been carried out in erythrocytes. How is borax prepared? Boric acid is toxic to humans because it binds with iron inside cells. Copyright 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Bhagyaraj S, Al-Ghouti MA, Khan M, Kasak P, Krupa I. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. It's said that about 15-20 grams of borax is all it takes to kill an adult human, however, an infant can die with as little as 5 grams. It's most commonly used as an insecticide, herbicide, fungicide, antiseptic and flame retardant. Add 4.385 g of NaCl to the solution. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. . Int J Microbiol. McNally, C.A. Iron is important for many body functions including blood formation, muscle movement, and nerve function. What happens if you swallow a boric acid suppository? Not only can oral ingestion of Borax cause severe symptoms, but the powdered form of . Ninety-nine per cent boric acid powder is now being used as a household pesticide. Borax is considered to be low-toxic, but also not a completely "green" chemical by scientists. Boron, often in the form of boric acid, is widely used as a flame retardant in insulation products, and although humans ingest boron through food, high exposure may lead to unwanted health effects. What Boric Acid Will Kill. Boric acid is not safe for humans. Online ahead of print. In humans, ingestion of boric acid becomes lethal at doses of 2 to 3 grams in toddlers, 5 to 6 grams in adolescents and 15 to 20 grams in fully grown adults, according to People for Clean Beds.. Reviewed by: Jacob L. Heller, MD, MHA, Emergency Medicine, Emeritus, Virginia Mason Medical Center, Seattle, WA. Recycling of Aluminum-Based Composites Reinforced with Boron-Tungsten Fibres. What are the symptoms of borax poisoning? Earlier chronic studies in rats indicated boric acid was not a carcinogen. Minimum oral lethal doses of boric acid in humans have been estimated from accidental poisonings to be in the range of 5-20 g for adults, 3-6 g for children and <5 g for infants. We assessed the toxicity of boric acid, borax and other forms of boron, after inhalation, dermal and oral exposure. 1986;24(4):269-79. doi: 10.3109/15563658608992592. 3. If a dog ingests boric acid, it can be very dangerous. Indoor rats will die faster after eating borax or boric acid bait as compared to those that live in the fields. 1994 Nov;102 Suppl 7(Suppl 7):107-12. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s7107. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. Biol Trace Elem Res. Careers. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. 3 Is boric acid for roaches safe for humans? What Is Boric Acid Used For? You can see from the boric acid formula H3BO3 that it consists of the elements boron, oxygen and hydrogen. Boric acid, however, has low toxicity to humans, pets, and non-target species when used properly, and it is effective on a wide range of insect pests . What is Boric Acid? W.D. It's sometimes called orthoboric acid, hydrogen borate or boracic acid. Chronic poisoning occurs when individuals are repeatedly exposed to boric acid. In the past, a diluted boric acid solution was used to clean and . Answer (1 of 6): yes, most chemical is always harmful to humans, especially to respiratory system,nervous system and skin. Borax has a low toxicity rate for humans and pets, but it's very fatal to ants once they consume it. Tsan YT, Peng KY, Hung DZ, Hu WH, Yang DY. Boric acid is a combination of water and boron, which takes the form of powder. REFERENCES 1. . It only takes the merest breath of wind for it to puff up and into a barley visible cloud. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Boric acid is a caustic chemical. It does not store any personal data. digestive problems. You should call if you have any questions about poisoning or poison prevention. Effects. [END-EDIT] [EDIT] For toxicity, LD 50 oral toxicity (where 50% of subjects are killed) is 3450 mg/kg for male rats and >631 . Inhalation toxicity data are sparse, but one animal study showed reduced foetal weight after inhalation of cellulose that had a boric acid content of 20%. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. 2022 Apr 9. doi: 10.1007/s12011-022-03231-5. How you are planning to inhale it? Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018:chap 148. This takes between 4-12 hours. According to research published in Toxicology, fatal doses of borax for humans are estimated to be 5-6 grams for children and 10-25 grams for adults. The main symptoms of boric acid poisoning are blue-green vomit, diarrhea, and a bright red rash on the skin. 8600 Rockville Pike Acute poisoning occurs when individuals swallow powdered cockroach-killing products that contain boric acid. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies People who have eaten boric acid have had nausea, vomiting, stomach aches, and diarrhea. Typically rats are used to calculate an LD50 value. Boric Acid Inhibits RANKL-Stimulated Osteoclastogenesis In Vitro and Attenuates LPS-Induced Bone Loss In Vivo. 1986 Jul;4(4):358-61. doi: 10.1016/0735-6757(86)90309-8. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. The site is secure. SOUFA is conducting safety tests. The health care provider will measure and monitor the person's vital signs, including temperature, pulse, breathing rate, and blood pressure. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Be careful about how to use boric acid termiticides because they are not insecticides. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. 2010;2010:930465. doi: 10.1155/2010/930465. Boric acid ophthalmic may also be used for other purposes not listed in this medication guide. There was no evidence of the carcinogenicity of boric acid in a 2-year study in mice. Diarrhea and vomit may have a blue-green color. Boric acid's LD50 value, the amount of Boric acid that must be ingested to kill 50% of those who ingest Boric acid, is 212 grams or 0.49 pounds of Boric acid for an 80 kg, (176 pound) adult. Pesticide products containing boric acid and its sodium salts are registered in the U.S. for use as insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. On cooling the solution, borax . Boric acid is not safe for humans. . However, in the form of borax, it can be corrosive to the eye. However, boric acid poisoning is considerably rarer than in the past because the substance is no longer used as a disinfectant in nurseries. so is higher than the 0.088 used by the EPA for pool exposure for humans. The LD50 is the Lethal Dose required to kill 50% of those who are exposed to it. Careers. This means that in about half of those who weigh 80kg (176 lbs,) 212gm (.49lbs) of boric acid would be a lethal dose. 2007 May;52(3):706-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00420.x. Boric acid is not safe for humans. While many think that boric acid will kill any pest in their home, the unfortunate truth is that it will not. Boric Acid Spray. If used correctly, boric acid is one of the most effective cockroach control agents available. Is there any way to prevent or prevent fire at the Shurijo Castle, a World Heritage Site? Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Your local poison control center can be reached directly by calling the national toll-free Poison Help hotline (1-800-222-1222) from anywhere in the United States. While this mix is highly toxic to cockroaches, it is relatively harmless to humans and pets.

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how much boric acid is toxic to humans