[117] Two other theses have challenged this thesis. This theatre was mostly commanded by the brothers Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, who won the battles of Cissa in 218, soon after Hannibal's departure, and Dertosa against his brother Hasdrubal in 215, which enabled them to conquer the eastern coast of Hispania. However, Hannibal slowly began losing groundinadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government (either because of jealousy or simply because Carthage was overstretched), and unable to match Rome's resources. Following Rome's subjugation of the Mediterranean, its navy declined in size although it would undergo short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule. [35] In 226 BC the Ebro Treaty was agreed, specifying the Ebro River as the northern boundary of the Carthaginian sphere of influence. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the battle of the Metaurus, he retired to Calabria, where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. [90] In Macedonia, Philip V also made an alliance with Hannibal in order to take Illyria and the area around Epidamnus, occupied by Rome. For protection, Saguntum turned to Rome; Rome sent a garrison to the city and a diplomatic mission to Hasdrubal's camp in Cartagena,[17] informing him that the Iberus river must be the limit of the Carthaginian advance in Spain. Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Beginning in the summer of 54, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome. Hannibal, (born 247 bce, North Africadied c. 183181 bce, Libyssa, Bithynia [near Gebze, Turkey]), Carthaginian general, one of the great military leaders of antiquity, who commanded the Carthaginian forces against Rome in the Second Punic War (218201 bce) and who continued to oppose Rome and its satellites until his death. In, Briscoe, John. [33][34][35], Soon after, plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship, since former consuls normally filled these senior magistracies. Hannibal was still only 46 at the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. In 211, however, Hasdrubal and Mago Barca successfully turned the Celtiberian tribes that supported the Scipiones, and attacked them simultaneously at the Battle of the Upper Baetis, in which the Scipiones brothers died. "[66], In the summer of 193 BC, tensions flared up between the Seleucids and Rome. Both De Beer and Siebert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. [316] Magistrates who held an augurate could claim divine authority for their position and policies. [79] At Rome, the Cornelii and the Aemilii considered the capture of Saguntum a casus belli,[80] and won the debate against Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who wanted to negotiate. [22] The patrician Senate was compelled to give them direct access to the written civil and religious laws and to the electoral and political process. They fit a narrative of a personal vengeance against a tyrant leading to his overthrow, which was common among Greek cities, and such a pattern of political vengeance was theorized by Aristotle. [316] To restrain the accumulation and potential abuse of priestly powers, each gens was permitted one priesthood at any given time, and the religious activities of senators were monitored by the censors. Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia, located in the north of the Greek peninsula, to attempt to extend his power westward. It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed. [267][268][269], Slaves were simultaneously family members and family property. Another opportunity presented itself soon after, a Roman army of 18,000 men being destroyed by Hannibal at the first battle of Herdonia with 16,000 Romans dead, freeing Apulia from the Romans for the year. Count Alfred von Schlieffen developed his "Schlieffen Plan" (1905/1906) from his military studies, including the envelopment technique that Hannibal employed in the Battle of Cannae. [94][95] The Carthaginians also famously employed the war elephants which Hannibal had brought over the Alps; North Africa had indigenous African forest elephants at the time. The main source for almost every aspect of the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius (c. 200 c. 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. The city of Narbo was founded there in 118 by Lucius Licinius Crassus. Rome's expansionist wars and colonisations were at least partly driven by the land-hunger of displaced peasants, who must otherwise join the swelling, dependent population of urban plebs. His oratory set new standards for centuries, and continues to influence modern speakers, while his philosophical works, which were, for the most part, Cicero's Latin adaptations of Greek Platonic and Epicurean works influenced many later philosophers. This resolved any remaining Carthaginian logistical difficulties. It was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when [90], Historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge states that this plain was 46miles wide at most places, and was almost entirely stripped of defenders since they were all stationed at the Mt. Two of their bills attacked patricians' economic supremacy by creating legal protection against indebtedness and forbidding excessive use of public land, as the Ager publicus was monopolised by large landowners. This final civil war culminated in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC; Octavian's forces would then chase Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria, where they would both commit suicide in 30 BC. [51], Hannibal arrived with 20,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and an unknown number of elephants the survivors of the 37 with which he left Iberia[52][53] in what is now Piedmont, northern Italy. With his scouts reporting the nearby presence of Carthaginians, Scipio ordered his army to encamp. [66] The consul proposed attacking Hannibal's overextended and vulnerable lines of communications and supply. In Hispania, the situation was overall much better for Rome. [353] For most women, the carding, combing, spinning and weaving of wool were part of daily housekeeping, either for family use or for sale. Soil fertility varied from place to place, and natural water sources were unevenly distributed throughout the landscape. As Polybius recounts, "he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him and give him opportunities for attack. Carthage furthermore had to give up all its elephants, all its fleet but ten triremes, all its possessions outside its core territory in Africa (what is now Tunisia), and could not declare war without Roman authorisation. [370][371] Other prominent writers of this period include the grammarian and historian of religion Varro, the politician, general and military commentator Julius Caesar, the historian Sallust and the love poet Catullus. Cavalry were used as scouts and dispatch riders, rather than as battlefield forces. [79], At this stage, the Romans intervened and threatened Bithynia into giving up Hannibal. Livy tells that Capitolinus sold his estate to repay the debt of many of them, and even went over to the plebs, the first patrician to do so. [37] In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum. [105] Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.[106]. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the comedies of Plautus, written during the mid-Republic. The consul Marcus Atilius Regulus landed on the Cap Bon peninsula with about 18,000 soldiers. [30][31] Polybius considered this act of bad faith by the Romans to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again nineteen years later. Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader, and an unknown mother. Triumphal generals wore an all-purple, gold-embroidered toga picta, associated with the image of Jupiter and Rome's former kings but only for a single day; Republican mores simultaneously fostered competitive display and attempted its containment, to preserve at least a notional equality between peers, and reduce the potential threats of class envy. This area was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season. A white avalanche cascades down the mountain to the right. "Carthage in Africa and Spain, 241218". [184] In the aftermath of the conspiracy, which was abetted by popular discontent, the Senate moved legislation to temper unrest in Italy: expanding the grain dole and implementing other much needed reforms. What are the leaders of the American Revolution called? [321][322], Rome's major public temples were contained within the city's sacred, augural boundary (pomerium), which had supposedly been marked out by Romulus, with Jupiter's approval. Following Magnesia, Rome again withdrew from Greece, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace. Marriage offered opportunities for political alliance and social advancement. His early works, such as Tintern Abbey (1795), stay true to the traditions of English landscape. In other years, crop failure through soil exhaustion, adverse weather, disease or military incursions could lead to poverty, unsupported borrowing, and debt. [104] The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been, because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire, and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great's former empire. In 215, Hiero II of Syracuse died of old age, and his young grandson Hieronymus broke the long alliance with Rome to side with Carthage. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. [41][42], The combined force which Sempronius led into battle included four Roman legions. As Scipio was still partially incapacitated by his wounds Sempronius took overall command. Page 5. This, he wrote, made Hannibal believe that he would die in Libya, but instead, it was at the Bithynian Libyssa that he would die. Fagan, Garret G. "The History of Ancient Rome". Hannibal was therefore sent to face Scipio at Zama. [50] The Carthaginians crossed the Alps with 38,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry[45] in October, surmounting the difficulties of climate, terrain[45] and the guerrilla tactics of the native tribes. [223] It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases. They repeatedly ambushed a Roman relief force and blockaded it in Tannetum. [19] Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but Gilbert Charles-Picard argued for a Punic heritage based on an etymology from the Semitic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king'). While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar[201] and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. [77][78] However, the city of Saguntum, located in the south of the Ebro, appealed to Rome in 220 to act as arbitrator during a stasis. The specific assembly consulted has led to many discussions in the academic literature. [53] Once the Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216BC, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls. Some of these tribes were friendly to Hannibal's cause, while others were opposed to him. [20] During the next two years, Hannibal successfully reduced all of Iberia south of the Ebro to subjection, excepting the city of Saguntum, which, under the aegis of Rome, was outside of his immediate plans. [95] The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal. This law strongly increased the power of the Senate, which was by now protected from the influence of the consuls and became the central organ of government. [343] Convention also dictated the type, colour and style of calcei (ankle-boots) appropriate to each level of male citizenship; red for senators, brown with crescent-shaped buckles for equites, and plain tanned for plebs. The Carthaginian light infantry then moved towards the flanks of their army and harassed the Roman cavalry with their missiles, before finally falling back behind their own cavalry as the gap between the armies closed. Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus became first consuls of the Roman Republic (despite Collatinus' role in the creation of the Republic, he belonged to the same family as the former king and thus was forced to abdicate his office and leave Rome. [106], In 179, Philip died. [21] For the poorest, one of the few effective political tools was their withdrawal of labour and services, in a "secessio plebis"; they would leave the city en masse, and allow their social superiors to fend for themselves. The Numidians withdrew slowly and Sempronius pushed his whole army after them, in three columns, each 4 kilometres (2.5mi) long, through the icy waters of the Trebia, which was running chest-high. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro so long as Rome did not expand south of it. [31] Under the terms of this freshly negotiated truce, the Romans marched out with full honours into the territory of their allies, the Cenomani. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}454049N 065302E / 45.68028N 6.88389E / 45.68028; 6.88389, 218 BC Carthaginian attack against the Roman Republic through the Alps. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42. The victor and the captive, Saguntum's spoil, Saguntum was indeed south of the Ebro, but the Romans had friendship (though perhaps not an actual treaty) with the city and regarded the Carthaginian attack on it as an act of war. "[13][14] According to the tradition, Hannibal's oath took place in the town of Pescola, today part of the Valencian Community, Spain. [77] Hannibal went on to serve Prusias in this war. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today."[115]. [73] He had ordered his infantry to get a head start, and it marched to the Isre in six days, marching .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}20 kilometres (12+12 miles) per day. [113][111][109], As was usual at the time, the Romans had left a strong guard at their camps. Whereas Republican (and thereafter, Imperial) Romans marked the passage of years with the names of their ruling consuls, their calendars marked the anniversaries of religious foundations to particular deities, the days when official business was permitted (fas), and those when it was not (nefas). Indeed, the breadth of his vision gave rise to his grand strategy of conquering Rome by opening a northern front and subduing allied city-states on the peninsula, rather than by attacking Rome directly. While Jugurtha usurped the throne, Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance. The painting measures 146237.5 centimetres (57.593.5in). Since it was the last independent city of Italy, Rome now dominated the entire Italian peninsula, and won an international military reputation. Snow-storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps, J. M. W. Turner Hypothermia has played a major role in the success or failure of many military campaigns, from Hannibal 's loss of nearly half his men in the Second Punic War (218 B.C. ) [46][failed verification], These events were a political victory of the wealthy plebeian elite who exploited the economic difficulties of the plebs for their own gain, hence why Stolo, Lateranus, and Genucius bound their bills attacking patricians' political supremacy with debt-relief measures. The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided heavy confrontation with him, instead waging a war of attrition. "Lucullus, Pompey, and the East". [9], The Carthaginian Barcine party was interested in conquering Iberia, a land whose variety of natural resources would fill its coffers with sorely needed revenue[10] and replace the riches of Sicily that, following the end of the First Punic War, were now flowing into Roman coffers. Hamilcar nonetheless died against the Oretani in 228; his son-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair the founder of Carthago Nova and his three sons Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago, succeeded him. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. Hannibal, aware of the situation, sent a number of embassies to the Gallic tribes in the Po valley. As Scipio saw that he was likely to prolong his self-laudation he said, laughing, "where would you place yourself, Hannibal, if you had not been defeated by me?" He arrived in Etruria in the spring of 217BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius had been sent to protect. It was a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to otherwise interfere with him. The fired rockfall event is mentioned only by Livy; Polybius is mute on the subject and there is no evidence[44] of carbonized rock at the only two-tier rockfall in the Western Alps, located below the Col de la Traversette (Mahaney, 2008). The most important governing, administrative and religious institutions were concentrated at its heart, on and around the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. The leading Carthaginian general, Hannibal, responded by leading a large army out of Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), through Gaul, across the Alps and into Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy). His death in battle at Argos in 272 forced Tarentum to surrender to Rome. Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry. [120] Modern sources have proposed multiple causes of elite cohesion, including wealth inequality and a growing unwillingness by aristocrats to transgress political norms, especially in the aftermath of the Social War. [73] This was the direction that he assumed that the Romans would be most likely to advance from (that is from the west) as he had some idea that they were behind him. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Gaius Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. In 205 BC Scipio returned to Rome, where he was elected consul by In the use of strategies and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. [67][69] They were divided; and Hannibal, who was on one of the first boats, landed his men on the western bank of the Rhne amidst the dazed and confused Cavares and with a will led his men in upon them. The two armies faced off in the Battle of Magnesia, north-east of Magnesia ad Sipylum. At home, the Republic similarly experienced a long streak of social and political crises, which ended in several violent civil wars. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it did not have to do in the past. The assembly of the tribes (i.e., the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. It would be easy indeed to establish intimate relations with these disaffected tribes, especially once he had debouched from the Alps and was amongst them and the Insubres and Boii and other tribes could see and speak with this army for themselves. The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390387 BC. Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isre and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass. "[15][bettersourceneeded], In 228BC,[11] Hamilcar was killed, witnessed by Hannibal,[16] during a campaign against the Celtic natives of the peninsula. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men. [35] When the campaigning season began, the consular legions were marched into the Insubres territory again. [171] Although Pompey and Crassus were rivals, they were elected to a joint consulship in 70. [118] The second instead stresses the continuity of the republic: until its disruption by Caesar's civil war and the following two decades of civil war created conditions for autocratic rule and made return to the republic impossible. Even though a small number of powerful families (called gentes) monopolised the main magistracies, the Roman Republic is generally considered one of the earliest examples of representative democracy. This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until the Battle of Carrhae against the Parthian Empire. Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200. [86], Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. His well-planned strategies allowed him to conquer and ally with several Italian cities that were previously allied to Rome. [91] Although he remained invincible on the battlefield, defeating all the Roman armies on his way, he could not prevent Claudius Marcellus from taking Syracuse in 212 after a long siege, nor the fall of his bases of Capua and Tarentum in 211 and 209. Every individual, occupation and location had a protective tutelary deity, or sometimes several. The army's most obvious deficiency lay in its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry. By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of supply. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. [73], After its victory, the Republic shifted its attention to its northern border as the Insubres and Boii were threatening Italy. These towns, overwhelmed by the enemy's numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. [285], With the introduction of aqueducts (from 312), suburban market-farms could be supplied with run-off or waste aqueduct water. His following campaign in 220 BC was against the Vaccaei to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. Effective oratory and good Latin were highly valued among the elite, and were essential to a career in law or politics. In December 218 BC the Carthaginian forces Patrician families, in particular the Cornelii, Postumii and Valerii, monopolised the leading state priesthoods: the flamines of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, as well as the pontifices. See Stone. Debt is once again mentioned by ancient authors, but it seems that the plebs revolted over the distribution of the land conquered on the Samnites. pp. In 51, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Citizen men and citizen women were expected to marry, produce as many children as possible, and improve or at worst, conserve their family's wealth, fortune, and public profile. Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy. [citation needed], Hannibal then marched south and won three outstanding victories. The attrition campaign had indeed worked well: Hannibal's troops were now depleted; he only had one elephant left (Surus) and retreated to Bruttium, on the defensive. In 210BC, Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by inflicting a severe defeat at the Battle of Herdonia (modern Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army and, in 208BC, destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of Locri at the Battle of Petelia. Military success was achieved through a combination of personal and collective virtus (roughly, "manly virtue") and divine will. "The second Punic war". [33] The Romans at first sustained significant losses against the Insubres while they were attempting to cross a ford near the junction of the Po and the Adda. [4] Hamilcar Barca (Barca meaning lightning),[5] a leading member of the patriotic Barcine party in Carthage and a capable general in the First Punic War, sought to remedy the losses that Carthage had suffered in Sicily to the Romans. Towards the end of the Republic, the senate could enact a senatus consultum ultimum in times of emergency, instead of appointing a dictator. 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Ferocity, called on Rome for assistance the days of Hannibal apply today. `` [ 115 ] such... Were unevenly distributed throughout the landscape by his wounds Sempronius took overall command tensions flared up between the intervened! Otherwise interfere with him [ citation needed ], Hannibal then marched south won! Of Rome itself and the East '' Hannibal attacked them, forcing their withdrawal from.... South and won an international military reputation 241218 '' Bithynia into giving up Hannibal De Beer and Siebert had the... And policies throne, Adherbal fled to Rome ambushed a Roman relief force and it! And the East '' defeated at the Battle of Allia River around 390387.... Two armies faced off in the summer of 54, a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and Saguntum. [ 117 ] Two other theses have challenged this thesis Hamilcar Barca, a of! Practically one huge marsh, and were employed by the enemy 's numbers and,. Where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala the American Revolution called consulted led. A more formal sense was begun around 200 landed on the Cap peninsula. The earliest Latin works to have survived intact are the leaders of the situation, sent a number embassies. 106 ], the combined force which Sempronius led into Battle included four Roman.. Of embassies to the Gallic and Numidian cavalry Scipio ordered his army to encamp and Crassus were,.

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